Moreover, the pathological involvement of Angiotensin-converting enzyme 1 (ACE1)/angiotensin II (Ang II)/angiotensin II type 1 (AT1) axis and beneficial ACE2/Ang (1-7)/Mas receptor axis also shows protective role via Gi βγ, during heart failure these receptors get desensitized or internalized due to increase in the activity of G-protein-coupled receptor kinase 2 (GRK2) and GRK5, responsible for phosphorylation of G-protein-mediated down regulatory signaling.
It has been shown that lowering cardiac G-protein-coupled-receptor-kinase-2 (GRK2) activity with βARKct expression, a peptide inhibitor of protein-coupled-receptor-kinase-2 (GRK2), results in improvement of heart failure in several different animal models.
Given that increased expression and activity of GRK2 and GRK5 contribute to the loss of contractile reserve in the stressed and failing heart, inhibition of overactive GRKs has been proposed as a novel therapeutic approach to treat heart failure.
The expression of G protein-coupled receptor kinase 2 (GRK2), a key signaling hub, is up-regulated in the long-term in patients and in experimental models of heart failure.
The gene expression pattern of GRK2 and β2-adrenoceptor as molecular markers of cardiac dysfunction was altered in patients with severe PR compared with controls and was similar to expression in patients with advanced HF.
GRK2 levels and activity have been reported to be enhanced in patients or in preclinical models of several relevant pathological situations, such as heart failure, cardiac hypertrophy, hypertension, obesity and insulin resistance conditions, or non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), and to contribute to disease progression by a variety of mechanisms related to its multifunctional roles.
Among them, GRK2 has been described to be upregulated in many pathological conditions and its crucial role in cardiac hypertrophy, hypertension, and heart failure promoted the search for pharmacological inhibitors of its activity.
Last, we will update the readers on the current status of GRK2 inhibitors as a potential therapeutic strategy for heart failure with an emphasis on their ability of rescuing NO bioavailability.
Thus, sensitization of the heart failure-promoting AT1 receptor by the RKIP-GRK2 interaction contributes to heart failure whereas dominant-negative GRK2-K220R is cardioprotective.
Design, Synthesis, and Evaluation of the Highly Selective and Potent G-Protein-Coupled Receptor Kinase 2 (GRK2) Inhibitor for the Potential Treatment of Heart Failure.
More consistent to mammalians, adult zebrafish developed significant heart failure in concert with β1-AR downregulation, and GRK2 and brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) upregulation in response to prolonged, 14d ISO-stimulation.
Small molecule Gβγ-GRK2 inhibition initiated 1 week post-injury was cardioprotective in the I/R model of chronic HF, including preservation of cardiac contractility and a reduction in cardiac fibrotic remodeling.
In addition, chronic overexpression of GRK2 inhibits catecholamine induction of vital positive chronotropic and ionotropic effects required to preserve cardiac output leading to worsening of congestive HF.
Increased Atrial β-Adrenergic Receptors and GRK-2 Gene Expression Can Play a Fundamental Role in Heart Failure After Repair of Congenital Heart Disease with Cardiopulmonary Bypass.
This review summarizes what is currently known regarding the activity of these kinases, and particularly the role of GRK2 and GRK5 in the molecular alterations that occur during heart failure.
These studies elucidate a novel mechanism by which hyperinsulinemia contributes to heart failure by increasing PDE4D expression and identify β<sub>2</sub>AR or GRK2 as plausible therapeutic targets for preventing or treating heart failure in subjects with type 2 DM.