In this review, we summarize recent literature relating to PD-1, CTLA-4, and other inhibitory receptors in antigen-specific T cell exhaustion in viral hepatitis, including hepatitis A, B, C, and others.
For these reasons, regulatory cells and receptors are likely to play a central role in maintaining the gut barrier and GI toxicities, such as colitis and hepatitis are indeed among the most common side effects of CTLA-4 blockade and to a lesser extent blockade of PD-1 and PD-L1.
When anti-CTLA-4 mAb-treated mice were cotreated with anti-CD3 mAb (teplizumab), hepatitis and anti-nuclear Abs were no longer seen and weight loss did not occur.